Local authorities are better placed to respond to crises and disasters

Local authorities are better placed to respond to crises and disasters Introduction Local and central governments have different roles to play in the response and management of disasters. In this context, disaster means a â€Å"sudden catastrophic event that brings any enormous destruction, damage, loss and/or devastation of property and life† (Taylor 1986, ‘Coordination for Disasters’ p.12).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Local authorities are better placed to respond to crises and disasters specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The damages so referred are immeasurable and vary in magnitudes depending on the inflicted region’s geographical location, climatic conditions and earth’s surface degree of vulnerability. During the occurrence of disasters, the social systems of emergency responses remain more often than not rendered disrupted and malfunctioned. Any hazard that causes immense human suffering amounts to a disaster if it is unpredictable occurring in a large enough speed to out power the response systems, characterized by uncertainty, urgency and the posing of intense threat. For any disaster to take place, people must be living in hazardous places for instance near volcanoes that are active, slopes susceptible to slides, or in regions likely to flood. In addition, the hazardous phenomenon must take place, whether it is human or naturally instigated. Finally the occurrence of the â€Å"disastrous phenomenon must cause immeasurable extensive damages especially where preventive measures have not been taken† (Taylor 1986, ‘The Context of British Politics’ p.57). Therefore, as the paper unveils, disasters do not include single incidents of human life losses such as a plane crush but rather entangle widespread human sufferings such as an intense earthquake, financial, outbreak of certain infectious diseases, flooding, or even human instigated disasters such as Chernobyl or sea express spill among others. The essa y will look at the roles of the central government in control and management of disasters as contrasted from the local government’s roles and finally evaluate the combined hands of both governance levels to draw a conclusion on which governance level is best placed to cope with disasters management. However, as is exposes, the reverse of the proposition is the case. Overview of the history and practice of civil defense Various theoretical perspectives have been formulated by different nations to cope with disasters. For instance, in 1991 â€Å"†¦the UK government launched a review of disasters preparations in the nation† (Alexander 2000, p.71). A national aim geared towards enhancement of nationwide emergencies planning agendas was published in 2003.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The agenda focused on putting into place resilience measures fo r the nation to respond to aftermaths of disruptive challenges as opposed to measures of risks reduction via anticipation or alternatively redundancy measures. According to Comfort (1994, p 157), such an approach makes an assumption of â€Å"†¦a capacity to reorganize resources and action to respond to actual danger, after it occurs†. Resilience here entangles specialized protections, which are standardized and centralized methodologies of hazards prediction. According to the civil contingencies bill, all the above mentioned resilient measure are all duties of local governments with an exception of centralization which is a mandate of central governments. â€Å"The general requirement of the bill, as an embodiment of current government thinking, seem to make it clear that central government’s desire is to distance itself from response to local disasters whilst trying to ensure adequate local preparation† (Lupton 1999, p.83). Crucial to note is that disaster s idiosyncrasies are not ardently necessary addressed by putting in place formal ways of disasters preparations. According to Comfort (1994), some of the idiosyncrasies include â€Å"need to be flexible in response and to be prepared to innovate† (p.158). Armed with these idiosyncrasies, any form of disaster response system can be sure to respond to the specific requirement of any new moment. As result â€Å"Central government desires to remain detached from local emergencies can be justified in the context and remains consistent with a theme of appropriate decentralization† (Taylor 1986, ‘The Context of British Politics’ p.56). Historically, differences exist in the manner in which decentralized and centralized nations handle disasters. The centralized governments have â€Å"fewer decision takers and that they are placed at a higher level in the response hierarchy† (Alexander 2000, p.164). The hierarchical and centralized models designed to handle disaster have received enormous critics since they have been perceived as having the capacity to hinder free information flow and consequently posing a tragedy in decision-making.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Local authorities are better placed to respond to crises and disasters specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Modern trends however, are based on coming up with remote structures that are adaptable to specific incidents and which posses amicable familiarity with appropriate responding services. As Penning-Roswell (1996) observes, â€Å"†¦at least in the case of natural hazard, although there is tendency to focus disaster response at local level, because of the intimate knowledge of the environment in which the emergency is occurring† (p.123) a broader disciplinary and geographical perspectives makes better insights be realized. Whether the disaster response is well established at local level as opposed to central level of governance is subject to essential requirements such the generic role of the government and the ability to have appropriate leadership during, before and after the occurrence of any disaster both at national and at local levels. Local and central government Leadership and disasters response Leadership encompasses willingness and the availability of good will to act in an appropriate way. Leadership, Prior to occurrence of any disaster, is essential despite the fact that more often than not, it is not easily recognizable. Under normal circumstances, deferring traits are demanded from those occupying authority positions during times of emergencies. Leave alone at local level, the capacity of the leaders at central government level to provide appropriate directive in times of disasters is subject to critics as for example during the hurricane Katrina disaster. Penning-Roswell (1996) noted that â€Å"Mismanagement and lack of preparation in relief effort in respons e to hurricane Katrina and its aftermath: specifically delayed response by federal flood protection to the flooding of New Orleans, Louisiana was attributed to leadership gaps that occurred on occurrence of the disaster† (p.142). This poses a big question on the credibility of the leaders to provide quick directions in times of emergency. Despite the fact that the state and local authorities have primarily responsibility to play in response to disasters with consequences of pointing the finger of blame on governor Blanco and Mayor Nagin, the central government slow response was particularly to be to be noted.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The central government has all the essential resources that can be mobilized for quick response to disasters but the beaurocracy to be followed such as the requirement of the financial and assessment of the damages caused before the actual release of state resources to deal with the disasters compounds the problem. Even though the local authorities may be well familiar with the environmental conditions of their localities and hence well positioned to determine the rescue services required much quickly, some disasters exceed their financial allocations or rescue equipments wealth. In most situations, those who are responsible for making urgent decisions on behave of a state are normally at the top hierarchical leadership levels. However, it takes some remarkable time before these leaders are acquainted with magnitude of damages due to the hierarchical established information flow channels with a repercussion of delayed rescue missions. If the local governments were conferred with, th e requisite ability to make quick decisions that can enable them to divert funds that were initially intended for other local government functions to the response of the disasters. It should be noted, â€Å"†¦if a consistently effective response to disasters is to be approved at the local level the realizable approach to the leadership role in time of crises is required† (Penning-Roswell 1996, p.151). According to the work of De Waal (2005) â€Å" rises tend to produce responses that require swift decisions to be made by relatively small groups of senior managers in order to deal with short term threats and that administrative and organizational centralization is a byproduct of this initial response† (Para 7). Small group of decision makers as a result has a capacity to make quick decisions In the event of crisis. Such a scenario is typically to be found in the at local government level if at all they have all the necessary resources to mobilize. A critic to this line of view would argue that, an assumption that the leaders in the central government would assume their acquaintance with unfamiliar environment and release funds to cater for disasters is anticipated. Another obstacle in arguing that the local governments are well positioned to deal with disasters than central governments is their skill-level of diversification required which in most cases not possible. Alexander (2000) says that, â€Å"relying entirely on local lead in the response to a disaster requires that a very substantial number of seniors and middle management officers are appropriately selected and trained for the role, one that might never occur in their careers† (p.88). With the increased pressure on resources allocation, issues confining the local authorities to particular mechanism of arriving at decisions raises questions about local governments ability to make rescue plans independently and if at all they are given this opportunity, would such plans be up t o date and available at the time of disaster occurrence? Research conducted by Pitt (2007, Para. 2) called upon the â€Å"government to show leadership and urgently set out the process and timescale for improving resilience in UK†. In his report, he identified the central government being at the best possible position to solve disastrous problems since it is the one, which has the capacity to make appropriate nationwide binding policies to help curb disasters. Considering two alternatives, for disasters to be dealt with appropriately at local level, some randomness in training of staff is essential. The other way out is to deploy specialists of different disaster response skills management to all local authorities. This evidently is not possible since the nature of disasters is normally random and characterized by infrequent events. An example of such an encounter is the Exxon Valdez oil spillage in Alaska disaster. The communities in Alaska have experienced distinctive histo ric disasters. As Browning and Shetler (1992) note, â€Å"three major disasters have occurred in this region during the twentieth century, each the largest of its kind in north America: Katmai eruption of 1912, the great Alaskan earthquake of 1964 and the Exxon Valdez oil spillage† (p.477). With occurrence of disasters in the same region, local communities acquired noble skills in disaster management accompanied by organizational skills. Browning and Shetler noted in their study of Exxon Valdez oil spillage disaster that, â€Å"†¦creativity, knowledge, energy and organization of local communities are sources that are not adequately tapped under the current contingency planning process† (p.480). However, were the skills reflected in the Exxon Valdez oil spillage, how much did local authorities contribute to the disaster management? From the rapid and swift movement of the central government to contain the Katmai eruption in 1912, it clearly indicates that the centr al government, through appropriate leadership has a better position to contain disasters. This remains possible by provision of funds urgently to aid in the evacuation, resettlement and provision of essential humanitarian services to the victims: what the local governments despite having adequate local environmental knowledge lack. The generic role of the central and local governments The central government has a historic generic responsibility to protect and manage its society to ensure maximum welfare and services delivery. Disaster management is one of such indigenous societal responsibilities that the central government must play. However, in an attempt to save money, it diverts the responsibility to the local authorities while not considering the effectiveness and efficiency of the response. The generic responsibility of the central government to cope with big disasters within a nations surfaces evidently in Pitt’s work on the report of flooding disaster in the united ki ngdom. He pointed out that â€Å"the government should provide local resilience forums with the inundation maps of reservoirs to enable them to assess risks and plan for contingency, warning and evacuation† (Pitt 2007, Para. 5). The local government thus functions under the directives of the central government. It can thus be argued that in case the central government does not respond sufficiently to provide the right and within the right time, the necessary strides that need to be taken by the local authorities to respond to certain disasters, then the whole response process may end up being slowed or unsuccessful altogether. The government must act first in an attempt to lay out the foundation of the response process by ensuring that â€Å"critical infrastructure is as resilient as possible, whilst essential services providers should become considerably more active in local and national emergency preparedness and response† (Pitt 2007, Para. 6). Furthermore, the envir onmental agencies are more often than not under the control of the central government. As a result according to Cabinet Office Strategy Unit (2002), the environment agencies responsibility to â€Å" play their part by providing infrastructure operators with a specialized site-specific flood warning service, offering longer lead times to enable defenses to be set up in time†(p.79) depend on the central government willingness to take up its generic roles. Foucault argues, â€Å"†¦the neo-liberalist tradition of developed western nations shies away from too much state intervention and instead champions individual freedom and rights† (Lupton 1999, p.86). It is now that the local governments should come in, despite their limited capacity to cope with certain disasters sufficiently to aid the central government. According to Pitt (2007), the local governments should play a significant responsibility to facilitate management of risks of local flood by â€Å"taking the l ead in tackling local problems of flooding and co-coordinating all relevant agencies† (Para. 7). He further adds, â€Å"Upper tier authorities should establish oversight and scrutiny committees to review the work undertaken to reduce flood risks and publish annual updates on the work undertaken† (Pitt 2007, Para. 11). However, this is a single noble role of the local government as identified by Pitt, which for its success must depend to large extent on the central government’s responsibility to make and implement facilitating policies. On the other hand, disasters do not just present danger moments but rather the danger process. Managing the entire process is a mandate of the central government as part of its generic roles. Comfort (1994) was to the opinion that â€Å"a good deal of political decision making is now about managing risks-risks which do not originate in the political sphere. Yet have to be politically managed† (p.161). The largest political d ecisions with nationwide impacts are generally more affiliated to the central government than it is to the local governments. The central government via the established political systems has the noble role to ensure political decisions are arrived to such that they contribute to the overall welfare of the society nationally. From a different perspective, politics evolution and the associated impacts on central government generic duties are in a manner that translates the task of risks management to a serious issue that deserves more of central government address than the local government. The central government can be able to adjust certain provisions so that disasters can be managed in a humane way without interfering with the individuals’ stakes. Take for example, the flooding disaster. The central government is capable of relocating flood victims to some certain selected land acquired through revocation of ownership of lands since in many countries; the central government is mandated to regulate and control use of public land by the constitution. On the other hand, the local government only utilizes the land as stipulated by the central government. Responses by local government to disasters are normally received with critics. For instance, the response of sea express spill in UK resulted to the establishment of joint response centre (JRC) to address the problem. As Alexander (2000) notes â€Å" the conflict of normal services versus preparation for major incident manifested itself here in that the planning process that supported the JRC had not taken into account the effects of local government organizations†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p.121). Again, the express disaster resulted to existence of multiple cells of operation, which were clearly not integrated and lacked robust and clear coordination process. The ability of the local governments to go beyond local issues either at political or operational level remains questionable. Conclusion The essay has made ef forts to show that coordination, leadership and the generic responsibilities attributed to local and the central governments coupled with flexibility and innovation are essential elements of disaster management. These elements draw much of their necessary inputs from the central government so that they become robust and evenly distributed within jurisdiction borders without attracting contrasting or parallelism ideologies and stands. A singly established national disaster response agency cannot pragmatically deal with multiple and widely spread disasters alone. The local governments must thus take up, play ardently their anticipated roles, and support the local communities in times of disasters occurrence. However, a question arises on how reconciliation of numerous established local disasters response agencies routine operational imperatives can be harmonized to ensure a common, efficient and effective effort designed to ensure central objectives of public, environment and society protection from escalation of harm emanating from disastrous occurrences. As a result, central government stands up high being at a better position to respond to crisis and disasters than local governments. References Alexander, C., 2000. Comforting Catastrophe. Harpenden: Terra publishing. Browning, L., Shetler, J., 1992. Communications in Crisis, Communication in Recovery: A Postmodern Commentary on the Exxon Valdez Disaster. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 10 (3), pp. 477-498. Cabinet Office Strategy Unit., 2002. Risk: Improving Government’s Capability to Handle Risk And Uncertainty. London: Cabinet office. Comfort, L., 1994. Risk Resilience: Inter-Organizational Learning Following the Northridge Earthquake of 17 January 1994. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 2 (3), pp. 157-170. De Waal, A., 2005. An Imperfect Storm: Narratives of Calamity in a Liberal-Technocratic Age. Web. Lupton, D., 1999. Risks. London: Routledge. Penning-Roswe ll, E., 1996. Criteria for the Design of Hazards Mitigation Institutions. (eds). Christopher hood David K.C. Jones. In Accident Design; Contemporary Debates in Risk Management. London: UCL press. Pitt, M., 2007. Learning Lessons from 2007 Floods. Available at https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100605032704/http://archive.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/pittreview/thepittreview.html . Taylor, A., 1986. Coordination for Disasters. In Disasters, 10(1), pp. 12-45. Taylor, A., 1986. The Context of British Politics. (ed). Jane Franklin. In The Politics of Risk Society. Cambridge: Policy press.

Linguistic Typology

Linguistic Typology Linguistic Typology is the analysis, comparison, and classification of languages according to their common structural features and forms. This is also called cross-linguistic typology.   The branch of linguistics that studies the structural similarities between languages, regardless of their history, as part of an attempt to establish a satisfactory classification, or typology, of languages is known as typological linguistics (Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 2008). Examples   Typology is the study of linguistic systems and recurring patterns of linguistic systems. Universals are typological generalizations based on these recurring patterns.Linguistic typology took off in its modern form with the ground-breaking research of Joseph Greenberg, such as, for example, his seminal paper on a cross-linguistic survey of word order leading to a series of implicational universals (Greenberg 1963). . . . Greenberg also attempted to establish methods for quantifying typological studies, in order that linguistic typology could meet scientific standards (cf. Greenberg 1960 [1954]). Furthermore, Greenberg re-introduced the importance of studying the ways languages change, but with the emphasis that language changes give us possible explanations for language universals (cf., for example, Greenberg 1978).Since Greenbergs pioneering efforts linguistic typology has grown exponentially and is, as any science, continuously being enhanced and redefined as to methods and approac hes. The last few decades have seen the compilation of large-scale databases with the help of ever more refined technology, which have led to new insights as well as given rise to new methodological issues.(Viveka Velupillai, An Introduction to Linguistic Typology. John Benjamins, 2013) Tasks of Linguistic Typology Among the tasks of general linguistic typology we include . . . a) the classification of languages, i.e., the construction of a system to order natural languages on the basis of their overall similarity; b) the discovery of the mechanism of construction of languages, i.e., the construction of a system of relationships, a network by means of which not only the obvious, categorial mechanisms of language can be read but also the latent ones.(G. Altmann and W. Lehfeldt, Allgemeinge Sprachtypologie: Prinzipien und Messverfahren, 1973; quoted by Paolo Ramat in Linguistic Typology. Walter de Gruyter, 1987) Fruitful Typological Classifications: Word Order In principle, we might pick on any structural feature and use it as the basis of classification. For example, we could divide languages into those in which the word for a canine animal is [dog] and those in which it isnt. (The first group here would contain exactly two known languages: English and the Australian language Mbabaram.) But such a classification would be pointless since it wouldnt lead anywhere.The only typological classifications which are of interest are those which are fruitful. By this, we mean that the languages in each category should turn out to have other features in common, features which are not used to set up the classification in the first place.[The most celebrated and fruitful of all typological classifications has proved to be one in terms of basic word order. Proposed by Joseph Greenberg in 1963 and more recently developed by John Hawkins and others, word-order typology has revealed a number of striking and previously unsuspected correlations. For example, a language with SOV [Subject, Object, Verb] order is highly likely to have modifiers that precede their head nouns, auxiliaries that follow their main verbs, postpositions instead of prepositions, and a rich case system for nouns. A VSO [Verb, Subject, Object] language, in contrast, usually has modifiers that follow their nouns, auxiliaries that precede their verbs, prepositions, and no cases.(R.L. Trask, Language, and Linguistics: The Key Concepts, 2nd ed., edited by Peter Stockwell. Routledge, 2007) Typology and Universals [T]ypology and universals research are intimately related: if we have a set of significant parameters whose values none the less show a high degree of correlation, then the network of relations among these parameter values can equally be expressed in the form of a network of implicational universals (absolute or tendencies).Clearly, the more widespread the net of logically independent parameters that can be linked in this way, the more significant is the typological base being used.(Bernard Comrie, Language Universals, and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and Morphology, 2nd ed. The University of Chicago Press, 1989) Typology and Dialectology There is evidence from linguistic varieties around the world, including Greek dialects, to suggest that the distribution of structural characteristics over the worlds languages may not be entirely random from a sociolinguistic point of view. For example, we have seen indications that long-term contact involving child bi-lingualism may lead to increased complexity, including redundancy. Conversely, contact involving adult second language acquisition may lead to increased simplification. Furthermore, communities with dense, tightly-knit social networks may be more likely to demonstrate fast-speech phenomena and the consequences of this, and more likely to experience unusual sound changes. I would like to suggest, moreover, that insights of this type can complement research in linguistic typology by giving an explanatory edge to the findings of this discipline. And I would also suggest that these insights should give some sense of urgency to typological research: if it is true that cert ain types of linguistic structure are to be found more frequently, or possibly only, in dialects spoken in smaller and more isolated communities, then we had better research these types of communities as rapidly as we can while they still exist. Source Peter Trudgill, The Impact of Language Contact and Social Structure. Dialectology Meets Typology: Dialect Grammar From a Cross-linguistic Perspective, ed. by Bernd Kortmann. Walter de Gruyter, 2004

International Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

International Relations - Essay Example In reaction to the tendencies and occurrences that happen in cyberspace, the options US intelligence community and the rest of the world actors make in subsequent years will form cyberspace for tens of years to come, with potentially reflective consequences for US economic and state security (Reveron 212). In US, cyber threats defined in terms of cyber espionage and cyber attacks. A cyber attack is an offensive action planned to generate physical effects or to maneuver, disrupt, or erase data. It might vary from a block operation that temporarily deters access to a page or site, to a hit on a power turbine that consequences physical injury and an outage lasting for some times. Cyber espionage denotes intrusions into systems to access sensitive political, military, or financial information. Increasing Risk to US Critical Infrastructure It is supposed that there is a remote possibility of a foremost cyber attack against US sensitive infrastructure systems at some stage in the subsequen ce years that would consequence in lasting, wide-scale interruption of services, such as a regional electricity outage. The stage of technical knowledge and operational complexity required for such a cyber attack, comprising the capability to generate physical damage or trounce mitigation issues like manual overrides; will be unreachable for most stakeholders during this time outline.3 Advanced cyber participants like China and Russia are implausible to initiate such an overwhelming attack against America outside of a military disagreement or predicament that they consider threatens their fundamental interests. It is evident that isolated nation actors might organize less complicated cyber attacks as a type of provocation or retaliation (Dutton 556). These less sophisticated but extremely motivated actors could hack a number of poorly safeguarded US networks that manage core functions, such as electricity generation, during the next couple of years, however, their capability to cont rol that access to grounds high-impact; universal disruptions will almost certainly be restricted. The previous years, US has experienced a denial-of-service operation against the open websites of numerous US stock exchanges and banks, stakeholders flooded systems with traffic and prohibited some clients from attaining their accounts through the Internet for a restricted period, even though the attacks did not modify customers’ details or affect other monetary functions.4 This is a form of cyber threat that US and the rest of the world faces. In late 2012 attack regarding Saudi oil company Aramco, malevolent actors made over thirty thousand computers on Aramco’s commercial network unusable. The threat did not damage production capabilities. Information Control and Internet Governance It is essential for the US intelligence community to control internet usage and

Chapter4 summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chapter4 summary - Essay Example Similarly, philosophy has its own set of principles that differentiate conflicting ideas (Stewart, & Blocker, 2001). The rise of western philosophy brought about a significant shift in philosophy and reasoning. In particular, the shift induced the appeal of reason from mythological criteria. An appeal to reason is the idea of making logical analysis before making a decision. Emotions do not comprise logical reason, in the sense that they compel one to make hasty decisions. Thus, the appeal to reason is the universal sense of correctness. However, different people have different measures for correctness as well as reasoning. The nature of a problem explains the existence of varied reasons. For instance, most people will disagree on a particular political agenda but agree on 5+7 = 12. This introduces the issue of reasonable decision or specifically what reason is. Reason is the basis of decisions making and, it reflects on the fairness of ideas or conclusions. Therefore, a reasonable person is one who judges his reasons and determines the most appropriate ones. Application of reasoning in decision-making is an appeal to concentrate on an issue. The study of logic and the connection between logic and reasoning is the foundation of philosophy. Science is also established on the appeal to reason; however, unlike philosophy, science utilizes empirical facts. For instance, a scientist must verify a claim through experiments before he or she can declare them the absolute truth. On the other hand, philosophers attempt to articulate our beliefs and assumption on nature. Thus, philosophers are preoccupied with theories that prove certain facts, instead of creating new theories. Philosophy’s chief tool is reason and, therefore it is not an empirical subject (Stewart, & Blocker, 2001). Since ancient times, people have been compelled to live according to reason. Socrates once said that life without reason is not worth living. Therefore,

Moral Universalism Vs Ethnocentrism Commerce Essay

Moral Universalism Vs Ethnocentrism Commerce Essay In todays scenario the manager across the globe are quite focused and clear when its comes to moral or ethical behavior because now a days there is a tremendous pressure from people, government and other concern bodies to do business ethically. Multinationals is the one who has to decide that what kind of approach they want to follow in their business process. Business ethics are the principals which are used to do business in a proper manner. This report is a critical assessment of ethical and moral challenges face by multinational companies in their overseas business operations. Moral Universalism Vs Ethnocentrism It is very difficult to defined a similar set of rules of morality and ethics for each and every country of the world because every country, every religion, every community has their own likes and dislikes, their own set of rules, preferences, understanding etc. so its become very difficult for an organization to formed a similar set of rules which can be applied in each and every country of the world. The decision to set moral values differs from place to place in which an organization is doing business. In Moral Universalism some set of ethics is accepted globally regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality. These are certain set of ethics which are globally practiced. Moral Universalism is broader approach when is come to apply ethics globally. Example: There are many examples where we see moral universalism used globally. The most common example of moral universalism is the equality in the workplace regardless of your gender. This is the most common example of moral universalism when global moral and ethics are used in every country without any hesitation. Ethnocentrism is the approach in which moral or the culture of a particular place, country or organization is judged accordingly to the standards set by a particular person, group or country. This style is very narrow in its approach and not widely accepted. Ethnocentrism mainly believed to be subtle and overt in its approach. Code of Conduct A number of organizations across the globe developed their own code of conduct when it comes to doing business overseas. Many organizations shake hands with other organizations in the world to develop a certain set of standards which can be used globally. Companies such as Avon (cosmetics), Sainsbury Plc. (a food retailer in the United Kingdom (UK)), Toys R Us (toy retailer) and Otto Versand (clothing retailer) have joined with the Council on Economic Priorities (CEP) to establish SA8000 (Social Accountability 8000, on the lines of the manufacturing quality standard ISO9000). (G.MEHALU, Kidus, 2011) Some standards which are globally accepted are as follows: Do not use child labor at work place. Dont use forced labor. Provide safe working environment. Pay at at least minimum wages to the workers. There are four major organizations which mainly decide the code of conduct for multinational across the globe: International Chamber of Commerce. Organization for Economic Cooperation development. International Labor Organization. United nation commission on transnational corporations. (G.MEHALU, Kidus, 2011) Factors affecting Moral and Ethical Behavior: Stage of moral development- There are various stages involved in the development of moral of an individual. Starting from pre conventional, then to conventional when one tries to fulfill the expectations of others, then last stage is the self chosen path. Individual characteristics- Moral and ethical behavior also differ from person to person. Its totally ones choice to decide what is right and what is wrong. Structural factors- Structure of an organization is also affecting the ethical behavior and moral values of an individual. Organizational culture- Organization working culture plays a decisive role in employees thinking. The organization laid the foundation stone in employees understanding of morality and ethical behavior. (G.MEHALU, Kidus, 2011) Case-1 NIKE Sweatshop: Nike is the world pioneer in the field of footwear and apparel manufacturing. It has the presence in over 140 countries across the globe with over 44000 workers. In the early 1990s, Nike products were being manufactured in six Indonesian factories, employing more than 25,000 workers. Four of these factories were owned by Nikes Korean suppliers. As Nikes presence in Indonesia increased, the factories supplying its products (about six million pairs of shoes per year) came under greater scrutiny. Reports by a variety of NGOs and labor activists claimed that these plants were rife with exploitation, poor working conditions, and a range of human rights and labor abuses. Many Indonesian shoe factories did not even pay the minimum daily wage (at the time, 2,100 rupiah or about US$1). They petitioned the Indonesian government for exemptions to the legal minimum wage, claiming it would cause them hardship to pay. According to official Indonesian government calculations, this minimum daily wag e only covered 70% of the basic needs of one individual let alone a family. Nikes Korean suppliers were seen as especially stingy with wages and abusive to local workers. (RICHARD M. LOCKE, Alvin J. Siteman, 2000) This case clearly shows that multinational organizations mould their rules and working style according to their preferences and according to the place where they are operating. What Nike does in Vietnam, Indonesia, Pakistan they cant do the same things in America or any other European countries because they have strict rules and regulation for the working environment. This a moral challenge which Nike faced during their operation in Asian countries but company decide lower their standard of operations in so called third world countries to make more profit. Nike not follow the same policy of operation which they use in America or Europe. But they decide to go another way and do which is morally and ethically wrong to make more profit margins (RICHARD M. LOCKE, Alvin J. Siteman, 2000). Case-2 Coca Cola Controversy in India Coca-Cola is one of the most recognizable brands on the planet, and also one of the worlds largest corporations. The companys profits amounted to just under $15 billion in 2005, while its market value is calculated at over $100 billion. Worldwide, more than one billion cans or bottles of Cola-Cola are consumed every day or 12,500 every second. But in 2004 in Kerala, Coca-Colas plant was forced to close down after the village council refused to renew the companys license, on the grounds that it had over-used and contaminated local water resources. Four months earlier, the Kerala High Court had ruled that Coca-Colas heavy extraction from the common groundwater resource was illegal, and ordered it to seek alternative sources for its production. Local villagers, politicians, environmentalists and scientists heralded the closure of the Plachimada plant as a major victory, and are now attempting to have it made permanent. In addition to the depletion of the groundwater, analyses indicated that water extracted by Coca-Cola had been contaminated with potentially harmful foreign particles as it was drawn upwards through the various rock strata. The water subsequently became unfit for human consumption and even for irrigation purposes. (Coca Cola the alternative report, 2006) Coke follows a strict rules and regulations in the US and in other developed countries but in third world countries coke doesnt remain in its ethical and moral value which they follow in their home country. In India and in many Asian countries coke working policy is ethically and morally correct but they change their policies according to their need (Coca Cola the alternative report, 2006). Coke which is world most trusted brand is doing the things which are not ethically and morally correct. They must follow the same practices which follow in U.S in other developed countries. Case-3 Ethical issues of McDonalds in India The major issue was beef. Cow being sacred and worshipped, beef could not be served. Muslims did not eat pork. The challenge was to change the form of the worldwide popular Hamburger to make an entry into India. With 25-30% of the population being vegetarian and a large majority eating meat, an alternative to beef and pork was necessary. The population of a billion was undoubtedly a promising opportunity for an international company. McDonalds accepted the challenge and created the Aloo Tikki Burger known as McAloo TikkiTM especially for the Indian vegetarian customers. Aloo- Tikki was a potato patty with spices. It also made a chicken and fish option available for the non vegetarians. McDonalds even separated the non vegetarian cooking process and the vegetarian cooking process to convince the customers of the Shudh Shakahari Experience which means pure vegetarian experience. In addition, the crew cooking vegetarian food was asked to wear green aprons. McDonalds in India was one of its kinds as it did not offer beef at all. In order to convince and change the perception of the customers about the burgers they offered, McDonalds made attempts to clarify their stand about beef in India. So the world famous hamburger was without meat. This was indeed a classic case of product adaptation, to gain foothold in a new market. (KULKARNI, Dr. Smita, 2009) McDonalds faces a crucial ethical and moral challenge in India bur they accordingly and tries to follow the practices which are used in India instead of imposing their own preferences over the people. McDonalds handle this situation of cross culturalism and ethical values very smartly and not lend into any controversy as we already discussed above. Conclusion: In keeping with the examples discussed above, one can say that moral values and ethics are depends on organizations. Organizations have to decide their moral values and ethics and implement them accordingly. As in this case company working policy is debatable but you cant accuse them because they dont do it forcefully, and they also give back to the society.

Garrity Warnings: To Give or Not to Give, That Is the Question Essay

         Garrity warnings are applicable during internal investigations which are being carried against law enforcement officers to ascertain allegations which have been laid against the officers. Under the Garrity Warning principle, the statements or testimonials by officers which are made during the investigations cannot be used against the officers in case there are criminal trials that have been instigated against the officer. There have been different cases where the principle of Garrity has been applied to determine whether officers are guilty of crimes or not guilty. One of the cases where the Garrity principle was applied is the case of McKinley v. City of Mansfield, 404 F.3d 418 (2005). In this case, there are various facts, and decisions which were made as follows: Facts            McKinley was a police officer when the police department conducted an internal investigation on its administration for all the officers (Eric, December 2012). All officers were put through an interview whereby they were all under the Garrity principle that said that their statement would not be used for the purpose of prosecution (Eric, December 2012). McKinley lied during the first interview. This prompted the investigator to conduct a second interview with McKinley, but after informing him of the allegations against him and also about the Garrity warning principle. McKinley admitted to have lied in the first interview and this brought about the case against him of lying (Eric, December 2012).               McKinley was informed by the investigating officer that he was being interviewed for the second time following allegations that he had provided untruthful answers during the first interview that was conducted (Eric, December 2012). Upon the completion of the second interview, the investigating officer turned in the statements made by McKinley as well as the findings that had been made during the two interviews to the prosecution for the purpose of prosecuting McKinley. Based on the findings of the investigation, McKinley was terminated but later reinstated to his former position with a back pay as well as benefits based on the collective bargain that was reached under arbitration (Eric, December 2012). Finally, McKinley was charged in court with falsification of information as well as obstruction of the official operations and business of the police department. Decision             When McKinley was charged in court, and made a motion to suppress the statements that he had made from being bused against him in the court of law. The judges declined the request and allowed the use of these statements. Based on the investigation findings and the statements which had been made by McKinley, he was convicted of the crimes brought against him (Eric, December 2012). The appellate court vacated the convictions against McKinley based on the view that the department knew that the statements by McKinley were based on the principle of Garrity hence inadmissible. The resulting action was that McKinley decided to instigate charges against the City of Mansfield as well as the investigating officers and certain police officials within the department (Eric, December 2012). The trial court granted a summary judgment to the defendants but the appellate court reversed part of the decision by the trial court. However, it was held that McKinley was still liable to charges against him based on the findings of the first interview.             From the case of McKinley, it is my belief that best practices were necessary in deciding this case so that there is fairness in the application of the law (Eric, December 2012). It was appropriate that the best practices were exercised in this case since there is need to uphold the law and ensure that the right of every officer is protected as well as that of the department of police. Alternative             From the above case of McKinley, it there is no alternative that would have been applicable in this case. The prosecution did not have the right to use the statements that the officer had made under the Garrity principle (Eric, December 2012). Furthermore, the investigating officer was wrong in using the second statement as part of the evidence against McKinley for the purpose of prosecuting him yet the statements were made under the Garrity warnings. The officer was right in taking action against the investigating officer as well as some of the officials in the department hence there are no alternative actions that he was supposed to take after what had transpired (Eric, December 2012). The department also did a right thing in taking him to court, but only based on the first statement from the first interview that he had to lies. Solution               The solution to the case between McKinley and the police department can be reached through an arbitration process whereby the parties can reach a common agreement. Arbitration will help retain the reputation of the department while ensuring that all the parties involved in the matter are satisfied. Conclusion            The Garrity warnings principle is an important aspect in the operations of the police department as it helps in protecting the officers. Furthermore, this principle should not be misused by the officers as a way to continue doing things which are against the law. The police department should also be very keen in the way it deals with officers under the Garrity principle. Reference Eric P. Daigle, â€Å"Garrity Warnings: To Give or Not to Give, That Is the Question,† Chief’s Counsel, The Police Chief 79 (December 2012): 12–13. Source document

Niccolo Machiavellis The Prince and The Discourses Essay

Niccolà ² Machiavelli thoroughly discusses the importance of religion in the formation and maintenance of political authority in his famous works, The Prince and The Discourses. In his writing on religion, he states that religion is beneficiary in the formation of political authority and political leaders must support and endorse religion in order to maintain power. However, Machiavelli also critiques corrupt religious institutions that become involved in politics and in turn, cause corruption in the citizenry and divisions among the state. In the following essay, I will examine Machiavelli’s analysis of religion and discuss the relationship between religion and politics in Machiavelli’s thought. It is important to†¦show more content†¦A political leader should not worry about being perceived as cruel if his actions are just and done in order to keep his people united because with these â€Å"very few† examples of cruelty, he will appear more merciful than the merciful leader who lets acts of cruelty go on without intervention. Machiavelli’s argument also focuses on the topic of integrity and generosity and on how a political leader should keep his word. On one hand, he states that it is commendable for a political leader to live by integrity and to be considered generous; however the leaders who have accomplished great deeds throughout history hardly cared about keeping their word and were men that were known to be able to manipulate every situation by clever and shrewd means. 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